Two peas in two pods? Comparing Sweden and Singapore’s lifelong learning policy and practice response to AI skills demands

Journal article, 2026

Singapore and Sweden invest substantial resources in upskilling their citizens for a digital transition fuelled by advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI). There, the digital transition faces skills shortages and mismatches, leading to increased pressure on lifelong learning (LLL) systems to address these shortages. In this comparative case study, we examine how respective LLL policies and practices address the demands for basic and advanced AI skills. Comparisons are discussed on three levels: system, institutions, and programmes. Singapore and Sweden aspire to be global leaders in AI innovation. This study shows that their AI skills development strategies share similarities but also exhibit significant differences. Singapore adopts a centralised, top-down-leaning, and technology-first policy approach, and Sweden has a decentralised, bottom-up-leaning, and human-centric policy approach; each has its shortcomings. Comparing these two perspectives and identifying gaps provides a valuable lens for understanding and addressing national strategies at the intersection of AI and LLL.