Harnessing nanomaterials to combat antimicrobial resistance: current advances, mechanisms, and future directions

Review article, 2026

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a critical global health concern, limiting the efficacy of conventional antibiotics and demanding novel therapeutic strategies. Nanomaterials, due to their unique physicochemical and surface properties, have demonstrated significant potential in combating AMR-associated infections, including those caused by multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens. This review evaluates the antimicrobial performance of various nanomaterials, including metal and metal oxide nanoparticles (Ag, ZnO, TiO2), carbon-based nanomaterials, polymeric systems, lipid-based carriers, and quantum dots. Experimental studies report that Ag and ZnO nanoparticles can achieve up to 95% bacterial reduction at concentrations below 50 μg/mL, while nanocomposite systems (i.e., multi-component or matrix-supported materials) enhance antibiotic efficacy by 3–5-fold. The mechanisms responsible for these effects such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, membrane disruption, inhibition of biofilm formation (>80%), and genetic modulation are discussed in detail (with emphasis on antibacterial models and endpoints). The review also examines the emergence of microbial resistance to nanomaterials, highlighting adaptive responses including efflux pump activation and biofilm-associated resistance. Challenges hindering clinical translation, particularly cytotoxicity, biocompatibility, and scalability, are critically analyzed. Finally, recent advances in the development of smart and stimuli-responsive nanomaterials, and their integration with artificial intelligence and vaccine technology, are presented as promising future directions. This review provides a scientific overview of current progress, challenges, and perspectives in applying nanomaterials to mitigate AMR and facilitate their transition from laboratory research to clinical implementation.