Labor market formation in the hydrogen economy: A cross-country comparison between sectoral and regional recruitment patterns in Denmark, Norway and Sweden

Preprint, 2025

The emergence of the hydrogen economy is expected to play a central role in industrial decarbonization, yet little is known about how hydrogen transitions shape labor markets across sectors and regions. This paper examines the formation of hydrogen-related labor markets in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, using job postings as a proxy for recruitment activity. Drawing on socio-technical systems theory and cluster analysis, we identify emerging configurations of actors, competences, and regional specializations. Data was collected from national job portals between August 2023 and September 2024 and analyzed using unsupervised machine learning. Six labor market clusters were identified, showing distinct combinations of recruiting organizations, sectoral focus, and geographical distribution. Engineering jobs—comprising over 40% of the dataset—were also examined in a separate cluster analysis, revealing variation in recruitment needs across technical disciplines and national contexts.

Findings suggest that labor market formation is deeply shaped by prior industrial specializations and policy frameworks. Norway’s labor market reflects its offshore energy legacy, dominated by consulting and engineering firms. Denmark shows a capital-concentrated, research-driven pattern, while Sweden’s job creation is led by large incumbents, particularly in energy utilities. The study demonstrates how labor market data can serve as an empirical window into early-stage socio-technical configurations in sustainability transitions. It highlights the potential of combining digital trace data and machine learning to understand regional, sectoral, and competence dynamics in emerging green economies. This approach advances the study of sectoral labor dynamics in energy transitions and offers tools for informing cross-sectoral policy and workforce planning.