Integrating Autonomous Last-mile Deliveries with Public Transit

Paper in proceeding, 2026

Lately, research has shown the potential of automation in freight transport by reducing energy consumption, emissions, noise, and operating costs—often focused exclusively on either freight (e.g., robots and drones) or passenger (e.g., automobiles and buses) transport. Hence, this research investigates the potential of technological advancements in self-driving and connected vehicles for better coordination between freight and passenger vehicles. To achieve the objective of integrating robotic last-mile deliveries with autonomous minibuses, Chalmers University in Sweden has been chosen as a case study. Pilot tests were conducted to measure the travel, handling, boarding and alighting times, and energy consumption for robots and the minibus. Freight and passenger demand were obtained from the historical daily demand data. Several scenarios for routing and bus stop locations were examined for the energy efficiency of freight deliveries via electric pickup trucks. The minibus required around 34 daily trips, operating two to three buses during peak times. The results demonstrated that robots exhibited superior energy efficiency at lower demand levels, while integrating with minibuses led to a further reduction in energy use by 20-50%. Two-way minibus movement maximised the overlapping of routes between the robot and the minibus, reducing passenger travel time; however, with an increase in the bus kilometres travelled. To reap maximum benefits of integration, it is vital to prepare an optimal plan considering the demand, vehicle size, routing, and bus stops to overlap with freight destinations.