Advancements in real-time electrochemical sensing of brain neurochemicals

Review article, 2026

Neurochemical signaling can be investigated across multiple spatial scales, ranging from quantal exocytotic neurotransmitter release at single synapses to extracellular fluctuations in neurochemical concentrations across intact brain circuits associated with physiology and behavior. Electrochemical techniques are particularly suited for monitoring these processes because they combine high temporal resolution and chemical sensitivity with miniaturized electrodes enabling spatially resolved measurements from single cells to freely behaving animals with minimum tissue damage. This review highlights recent advances in carbon fiber microelectrodes, alternative electrode materials, nanostructured interfaces, surface modification strategies and electrochemical methodologies that improve analytical performance. It also examines novel molecular-recognition and biosensing strategies including aptamers, molecularly imprinted polymers, enzyme-based biosensors, liquid-liquid junction microelectrodes, photoelectrochemical sensors and synthetic receptor-based platforms that extend detection also to non-electroactive neurotransmitters. Particular focus is placed on simultaneous multianalyte detection and complementary methodologies enabling to better understand how neurotransmitter dynamics relate to brain function and dysfunction.