A multidimensional assessment of passive container houses: Energy, emissions, and economics

Journal article, 2025

Container houses are low-cost and quick to build, but their envelope structures are generally thin and lightweight, which often leads to high energy consumption and carbon emissions. Passive house technology offers an effective solution to this issue. This study presents a multidimensional evaluation of passive container houses in five representative climate zones across China, focusing on energy performance, life-cycle carbon emissions, and economic feasibility. A calibrated dynamic simulation model was developed using EnergyPlus, validated through on-site monitoring of temperature, CO2 concentration, and thermal imaging. The thermal performance of the envelope and the effectiveness of air change rates were examined to improve model accuracy and represent realistic indoor conditions. Life-cycle carbon emissions were assessed based on a cradle-to-grave system boundary following the national standards, including both embodied and operational emissions over the different service life. A carbon break-even analysis was conducted to determine the time required for operational carbon savings to offset the embodied carbon increase from passive upgrades. Results show that passive container houses can reduce annual HVAC energy demand around 54–72 %, with carbon break-even achieved within 6 years depending on the climate zone. Economic analysis reveals a payback period ranging from 4 to 22 years, depending on regional energy prices and initial investment. The findings underscore the importance of holistic thermal design for lightweight modular structures. The study provides a validated and reproducible framework that integrates measurement, simulation, carbon accounting, and economic evaluation that offering practical guidance for deploying low-carbon, climate-adaptive container housing in China and similar climate regions around the world.