Riding simulators: What is the way forward?

Journal article, 2026

This paper introduces a novel micromobility simulator that combines a large treadmill with stereophotogrammetry to enable virtual testing of real bicycles and e-scooters while preserving the balancing task and allowing lateral maneuvering. Unlike existing riding simulators, the platform accommodates real vehicles, increasing ecological validity for research on balance and control. The simulator architecture is presented and its potential demonstrated by comparing lateral control during obstacle avoidance—a critical task that previous simulators could not address with comparable realism. Because full balance control is preserved, we propose new metrics for comparing balance across micromobility vehicles and show how they complement traditional indicators of lateral control and performance. Overall, the paper contributes 1) a vehicle-agnostic riding simulator and 2) a minimal yet discriminative set of indicators for maneuvering and balance across tasks and vehicles. Twelve participants performed cruising and obstacle-avoidance tasks at different speeds on both a bicycle and an e-scooter. Four indicators were analyzed: standard deviation of lane position and steering angle, adapted from driving simulation research, and standard deviation of lean angle and relative upper–lower body angle, inspired by motor control literature. Results revealed distinct patterns across tasks, speeds, and vehicles, with low redundancy among indicators. Notably, during obstacle avoidance, participants exhibited different postural strategies on bicycles and e-scooters and collided more frequently when cycling. The simulator enables new research on human–vehicle interaction, ergonomics, and safety in micromobility, although further validation and enhancements are needed to fully exploit its potential.